AD ALTA
JOURNAL OF INTERDISCIPLINARY RESEARCH
ACTIVATIONAL TEACHING METHODS AS A TOOL FOR DEVELOPMENT OF CRITICAL
THINKING
a
REBEKA ŠTEFÁNIA KOLE
ŇÁKOVÁ,
b
SIMONA
BORISOVÁ,
c
LENKA ŠUTOVCOVÁ
Constantine the Philosopher University in Nitra, Department of
Pedagogy, Drážovská cesta 4, 949 74 Nitra, Slovakia
email:
a
rebeka.stefania.kolenakova@ukf.sk,
b
simona.borisova@ukf.sk,
c
lenka.sutovcova@ukf.sk
This study has been written under the project: APVV-15-0368 Practice in the centre
of the subject field didactics, subject field didactics in the centre of preparation for
practice.
Abstract: In education, the development of critical thinking is a long-term process that
needs to begin in early school age. This period is important for the development of
critical thinking, because a child starts school and is significantly affected by the
teacher’s way of work. A pupil is required to be able to think critically when starting
secondary education. The main prerequisite of pupils’ development of critical thinking
is teacher’s creative personality using a creative approach in education. This paper
deals with the analysis of activational methods and the application of Philosophy for
Children program as a tool for development of critical thinking in educational process
of pupils at secondary education level. Within the Philosophy for Children
programme, we have implemented activational methods in the education process. The
research design was quantitative, and the data was acquired based on the experimental
method. The research results confirm the benefits of the Philosophy for Children
program in educational process with emphasis on its potential to develop pupils’
critical thinking owing to its principles and characteristics.
Keywords:
critical thinking, activational methods, philosophy for children, education
1 Introduction
The explosion of information that the world offers us nowadays
makes us learn to work with them adequately and, more
importantly, to select them in terms of their real use. Reflecting
this situation, there is a need to teach pupils to think critically in
an adequate way. This is also related to the changing
requirements for education in schools, which we must
implement in our education system. We see this as one of the
current challenges of our education system. The issue of
developing critical thinking of pupils is a very timely and often
discussed topic today. The level of critical thinking development
determines the pupil's success not only in the school, but also in
the environment outside of school. In today's information
society, people's ability to deal with different life situations
flexibly, critically, creatively and incentively is required. The
need for the implementation of methods and strategies for
developing creative and critical thinking in the educational
process in Slovakia is also pointed out by the results of the last
three cycles of the PISA international assessment (2012, 2015,
2018), in which Slovak pupils reached considerably lower score
in all monitored areas than the average in OECD countries. The
negative trend of decreasing performance in all monitored areas
confirms insufficient development of creative and critical
thinking among pupils in Slovakia. Pupils are not able to work
independently and use higher cognitive operations (synthesis,
analysis, evaluation and creativity). Widely available
information introduces the need to teach pupils how to work
with them and use them in a meaningful way through critical
thinking (Higgins, 2014). Critical and creative thinking plays an
exceptional role in teacher education, because it is teachers who
can influence the skills of critical thinking among the school-age
population. The main prerequisite is the teacher's knowledge of
various methods and strategies for development of critical
thinking. Psychodidactic competencies of a teacher include skills
and abilities, thanks to which the teacher is able to process the
learning content and manage teaching in order to develop
(meta)cognitive processes of pupils, implement teaching
strategies and assessment activities that have the potential to
contribute to the development of pupil’s personal and cognitive
characteristics (Duchovičová, Petrová, 2016). The most
significant obstacle to achieving the above-mentioned goal,
while developing psychodidactic competences in teacher
education in practice, is teachers’ limited knowledge of how to
develop critical thinking in teaching (Williams, 2005).
2 Critical and Creative Thinking
The topic of developing critical thinking has been the subject of
scientific research for several decades. Important foreign authors
who have been involved in studying critical thinking include
Ennis (1985), Lipman (1988), Bailin (2002), Paul, Elder (2006),
Scriven, Paul (2007), Willingham (2010), Lai (2011), Halpern
(2014) and many others. Lipman (1988) argues that critical
thinking is, in contrast to conventional thinking, more complex,
because it involves not only mental processes for problem-
solving and decision-making, but also thinking based on which
people make judgments. Critical thinking is a disciplined process
of active conceptualizing, analyzing, applying and evaluating the
gathered information (Scriven, Paul, 2007). In Slovakia, the
concept of critical thinking in terms of teaching began to emerge
in the 1990’s, when teachers from kindergartens to universities
gathered around non-governmental organizations that covered
international projects aimed at influencing educational strategies
of teachers and educators (Porubský et al., 2014). Nowadays in
the Slovak Republic, Kosturková (2016
), Velmovská, Bartošovič
(2016),
Duchovičová et al. (2016; 2017; 2018; 2019),
Kosturková, Ferencová, Šuťáková (2018); Kosturková,
Ferencová (2019) and others focus on critical thinking in their
studies.
The term critical thinking has been used in education for several
decades. It represents a higher way of thinking that begins with
information and ends with a decision (Petrasová, 2008). A
critical thinker assesses new information, examines it carefully
and critically from multiple perspectives, makes judgments
about its credibility and value, and assesses the importance of
new ideas and information for his/her needs (Grecman et al.,
2000). Critical thinking is the ability not to succumb to the
imposing influence of foreign thoughts and opinions, but to
evaluate them strictly and correctly in order to see their positive
and negative aspects. Critical thinking itself is based on
attitudes and abilities to gather and assess relevant information,
draw reasoned conclusions, address the problem on the basis of
relevant criteria, assess the assumptions and implications of
decision-making (Snyder, Snyder, 2008). To think critically
means for Halpern (1999) to evaluate the outputs of the thinking
process, i.e. what is the quality of the solution or how well a
problem is solved. The process of critical thinking occurs at the
moment when a problem arises, while an individual is able to
raise questions leading to evaluation, argumentation, statements
and conclusions. This process includes problem-solving,
probability calculations, formulation and drawing of
conclusions. Critical thinking is a conscious process, so we can
practice and develop its individual components at the same time.
Based on the Delphi report, Facione and Facione (2008) defined
critical thinking as a process of purposeful and self-regulatory
reasoning, careful consideration of evidence, contexts,
conceptualization, methods and criteria. Several definitions of
critical thinking suggest that it is based on mastering simpler
cognitive skills. In relation to previous baselines, Tileston (2005)
lists the following skills of critical thinking:
inductive reasoning (where we classify e.g. cause and
effect; open problems, analogies; drawing conclusions;
identifying relevance, relationships; problem-solving);
deductive reasoning (using logic, reasoning; understanding
contradictions; spatial problems; syllogisms consisting of a
set of three statements, where a conclusion is drawn from
two assumptions);
evaluative thinking (in form of differentiating facts and
opinions; credibility of the source; identifying the main
problems; distinguishing assumptions; detecting
stereotypes; evaluating hypotheses, classifying a set of
information; assuming consequences.
It is important to have critical thinking, because it enables pupils
to deal effectively with scientific, social, and practical problems
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